Report of the apa task force on gender identity and gender. This theory was an attempt to integrate the influences of nature and nurture. As a result, in some cultures there are third, fourth, fifth or some genders. Psychodynamic theory has its roots in the work of viennese psychoanalyst, sigmund freud. Social cognitive theory of gender role development and functioning integrates psychological and sociostructural determinants. A theory presents a concept or idea that is testable. The way they are treated socially in combination with their biological sex will determine the childs gender. Turning to concrete questions of justice for women, sen introduces the issue of co. Behaviorists believe that an infants mind is a blank slate upon which social factors and conditioning act. Theories used to explain male violence against women partners.
Gunter krampen, brltt effertz, ursula jostock, and beatrix muller university of trier, frg abstract the results of three empirical studies are reported in which the hypothesis is tested that diferences in personality variables between the morphophenotype sexes can be. Research and teaching in the psychology of women chapter 4. The cognitive approach gender issues in psychology social sciences psychology. Usually, women are devalued whilst men are presented as superior to them for example, freuds research was conducted during the 19th century where a patriarchal society influenced peoples views on women and consequently freuds theories. These three theories and related ones covered in chapter 5e. Each theory provides a different lens through which we can examine aspect of violent behavior. Sens contention is that the capabilities approach can handle these conflicts better than rawlsian liberalism and economic. Gender issues in psychology psy512 table of contents. According to the theory and research findings, when significant others support rather than thwart psychological needs i. Traditional behaviorist psychological theories of transsexualism behaviorist psychology was a dominent school of thought during the 1950s80s, and has left a deep imprint on theories of gender and sexual behavior.
Gender is increasingly understood as defining a system of power relations embedded in other power relations. Women have adapted to their roles with less power and. Many racial and ethnic groups in the united states, including blacks, hispanics, asians, american indians, and. It presents, to students, teachers, researchers, and practitioners, discussions of the very latest in methods, research, and theory in the psychology of women. An observation of inequality can yield a diagnosis of injustice only through some theory or theories of justice. Gender is embedded so thoroughly in our institutions, our actions, our. According to biological theories, psychological and behavioral gender differences are due to the biological differences between males and females.
Social psychological theories and models are often adopted to identify and understand. Gender, in general sense, is understood as psychological, social and cultural differences between males and females, it is mostly about masculinity and femininity, it is not directly about biological sex giddens, 2009. Two theories have suggested that some people are more likely than others to use biological sex and psychological gender as the basis for categorizing or assimilating information. A social psychological perspective was published, one of the first textbooks on the psychology behind women and sex roles. Sex refers to an individuals biological status as either male or female or hermaphrodite. This chapter highlights various psychological theories, beginning with early psychological perspectives such as the theories developed by sigmund freud, hans eysenck, lawrence kohlberg, and john bowlby. In nonwestern countries, gender is not always conceived as binary, or strictly linked to biological sex. Alpha bias in an experiment exaggerates the differences between men and womenmaking one seem better than the other. There is no original or primary gender a drag imitates, but gender is a kind of. These are psychodynamic theory, social learning theory, and cognitivedevelopmental theory. Gender development, theories of miller major reference. A key challenge lies in how to reconcile communityspecific applications with broader theories that guide research. Social learning theory proposes that both gender identity and gender role are learned through.
This is cumbersome, as hardly any theory stays within one. Borrowing from the words of john martenussen, most of these theories have been propounded by western and north american authors and have been termed growth and development theories. Evaluation of the biological theory of gender it is clear from a range. The approach assumes that gender identity is neutral before the age of 3, and can be changed, e. Against the background of an action theory approach to human development e. This was done because it would have been both impractical and unethical to experimentally manipulate hormone levels in humans in order to assess their behavioural effects.
John moneys 1972 theory was that once a biological male or female is born, social labeling and differential treatment of boys and girls interact with biological factors to steer development. Gender socialization refers to the learning of behavior and attitudes considered appropriate for a given sex. In this theoretical perspective, gender conceptions and roles are the product of a broad network of social influences operating interdependently in a variety of societal subsystems. Each theory has helped contribute to our knowledge base of the human mind and behavior. Debates about the role of culture in psychological processes have sparked a movement towards research that is directly applicable to social problems. Gender theory has been used to question the foundational practices of history itself. Psychological theories of prejudice and discrimination. Amongst these theories are the inequality and the modernization theory used in this project to explain the wide gender problems existing in ssa.
Apa, in the third edition of the publication manual, set guidelines to. Gender roles and the categorization of genderrelevant. These theories, among the most important and influential of all criminological theories, are subject to a detailed discussion in the section of this report entitled social learning and violence see below. According to biological theories, psychological and behavioral gender differences are due to the biological differences between males and.
Gender training a facilitated process of developing awareness and capacity on gender issues, to bring about personal or organisational change for gender equality gender violence any act or threat by men or maledominated institutions, that inflicts physical, sexual, or psychological harm on a woman or girl because of their gender. Social cognitive theory of gender development and differentiation. The diagnosis of gid, according to the diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders 4th ed. Gender is the most obvious physical and perhaps psychological difference between humans and almost most animals, and is a fundamental division within nature. Gender issues in psychology psy512 table of contents lesson 01 introduction 1 lesson 02 feminist movement 4 lesson 03 historical background 7 lesson 04 gender related research 10 lesson 05 research methods for gender issues 17 lesson 06 qualitative research 21 lesson 07 biological differences between genders 25. All focus on early childhood, that is, up until about seven years of age. Gender refers to a persons sense of, and expression of, their maleness or femaleness.
Boys learn to be boys, and girls learn to be girls. Within this family of approaches, researchers have focused on historical explanations such as evolutionary processes and proximal explanations such as genes and sex hormones. Alexander university of california, irvine christian welzel jacobs university bremen abstract multiple literatures suggest that the following factors may figure prominently in explanations of. Psychological theories of prejudice and discrimination i prejudice and stereotypes social perception involves the development of an attitude towards another person or group of persons. This theory sees the role of the family, the mother in particular, as crucial in shaping ones gender identity. A second context is a bit more complex but no less important. Besides biological models, psychologists have given many models which helps describe and explain the various psychosocial theories of gender development. The concept of gender development was not the specific focus in any of these perspectives. Combined with social history, gender theory applied to historiography and the philosophy of history reconsiders the announced objectivity and standards of the profession as it has evolved since the nineteenth century.
A stereotype is an attitude towards a person or group on the basis of some physical characteristic or physical fact. These theories can be generally divided into three families. Key assumptions of the biological approach concerning gender differences hormones play a huge role in gender differences and it is our dna that dictates our behaviour as men and women. To consider gender development, this entry focuses on how the humanisticexistential perspective as it has emerged in modern psychology has influenced human. An overview of various theories that have been put forwarded is as follows. Below we describe five different theories of gender development. The theory integrates psychological and sociostructural determinants within a unified conceptual structure. Four theories tested on four different aspects of gender equality amy c. Learn vocabulary, terms, and more with flashcards, games, and other study tools.
Other influential academic works focused on the development of gender. The biological approach, gender issues in psychology social sciences psychology. Pdf on feb 22, 2018, alexandra rutherford and others published psychological. Feminism is supporter for social equality of men and women and against to sexism and patriarchy. Feminist theory is most known and still alive theory in society about gender. Psychological research on genderwhich has most often focused on analysis of sex differences, withinsex variability, and gender roleshas begun to incorporate this new understanding. Psychological theories of crime and delinquency megan moore school of social welfare, university of california at berkeley, berkeley, california, usa several psychological theories have been used to understand crime and delinquency. By contrast, the concept of gender is not well defined. Others, like freuds theories, have not held up so well and have been mostly replaced by new theories that better explain human development.
Evolutionary psychology is one such theory that views gender differentiation as. Gender plays a role in order to shape all relationship of people in daily life macionis, 2010. Gender is often determined by the cultural differences expected by society of men and women according to their sex. Mcphail1 abstract the radicalliberal feminist perspective on rape posits that the assault is motivated by power and control rather than sexual. Sociologicallyoriented theories emphasize the social construction of gender roles mainly at the institutional level lorber, 1994. Finally, this theory is at odds with womens striving for greater independence and equality between the sexes sayers, 1986. Cognitive theorists focus on how people perceive their social environment and learn to solve problems. According to the theory, children adjust their behavior to align with the gender norms of their culture from the earliest stages of social development. The characteristics that generally define gender are referred to as. An introduction to gender we are surrounded by gender lore from the time we are very small.
Key concepts hegemonic masculinity patriarchal dividend. Some theories such as classical conditioning are still wellaccepted today. By drawing on three resources, psychologists can make more rapid progress in understanding genders. This paper will attempt to distinguish between two often confusing terms sex and gender and. The concept of biological sex is well defined, based on the binary roles that males and females play in reproduction. Another textbook to be published, gender and communication, was the first textbook to discuss the topic of its subject. Given the ubiquitous influence of gender in a persons life, a number of theories have been developed to explain gender development. It is everpresent in conversation, humor, and conflict, and it is called upon to explain everything from driving styles to food preferences.
The freudian version is that penis envy drives girls inevitably toward mothering. Theories of gender inequality the theories discussed here may be classified in several ways. Pdf social cognitive theory of gender development and. According to biological theories, psychological and behavioral gender differences. Ruble and joel szkrybalo new york university the contribution of cognitive perspectives cognitivedevelopmental theory and gender schema theory. Cognitive theories of early gender development carol lynn martin arizona state university diane n. Developmental psychology gender development aidan sammons. We then examine the contributions and limitations of bussey and banduras 1999 recent account of gender development. It should provide an explanation of gender s seeming intractability and universality, and of individuals ability to manifest and experience gender in endlessly multiple ways. A theory is a factbased framework for describing a phenomenon. Sex role theories generally argue that gender is a product of socialization. Our metaanalysis makes three primary contributions to the literature on gender and perceptions of leadership effectiveness.
The seemingly simplest approach would be classification of theories as biological, psychological, anthropological, sociological, and eco nomic. Theories used to explain male violence against women partners and expartners theories are important, not only because they offer different explanations for the phenomenon of domestic abuse, but because each approach has clear implications for responses and interventions by practitioners and policymakers. Not surprisingly, social norms for heterosexual coupling and care of any resulting children are closely intertwined with gender. A theory is based on a hypothesis that is backed by evidence.
Research in gender psychology has shown that men and women are more similar than different. Gender schema theory was introduced by psychologist sandra bern in 1981 and asserted that children learn about male and female roles from the culture in which they live. A useful psychology of gender needs to make sense of both the seemingly fixed and universal aspects of gender and the seemingly contradictory and individual aspects of gender. The biological approach, biological differences between genders. Pdf given the ubiquitous influence of gender in a persons life, a number of theories have been developed to explain gender development. Gender role preferences determined by a series of critical events. According to biological theories, psychological and. Knitting feminist theories of rape etiology into a comprehensive model beverly a. Recognizing that superficial changes in appearance or in activities will not change a persons gender karen horney critic of freud but like freud, she placed a great deal of emphasis on the unconscious and the importance of sexual feelings and childhood experiences in.
First, we expand upon and update an early metaanalysis con. Three kinds of learning and how they apply to gender. Gender socialization henslin 1999 contends that an important part of socialization is the learning of culturally defined gender roles p. For example, chromosomes female xx, male xy, reproductive organs ovaries, testes, hormones oestrogen, testosterone.
Psychoanalytic theories of gender oxford scholarship. According to cognitive developmental theory, gender identity is postulated as the basic organizer and regulator of childrens gender learning. Theories of gender development introduction to communication. The positive and negative features of existing theories can be used to know the causes of violence against women. However, what is unique about the pwf and the theoretical contribution presented in this article is placing social and eco. The tolerance of gender inequality is closely related to notions of legitimacy and correctness. Gender differences result from the contrasting social roles of men and women. Gender is generally conceived as a set of characteristics or traits that are associated with a certain biological sex male or female.
Key concepts queer theory heterosexual matrix performativity. Boys and girls shape their identity in relation to that of their mother. While similar in some respects, these theories also yield some different pre. International aspects of the development of the psychology of women and gender marilyn p. The biological explanation for gender differences owlcation. Gender inequality and theories of justice oxford scholarship. Traditionally, there are three main psychological explanations of how we navigate the path to gender identity. In contrast to sociological theories, psychological theories of crime focus on the influence of individuals experiences or their emotional adjustment, as well as on their personality traits and types. The social psychology of gender inequality springerlink. Developmental psychology gender development gender.
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